An Analysis into Subversive Poetry during the Restoration Period.

Content Warning: Extreme Sexual Nature 

During the poetic Renaissance period, more specifically the Restoration period, there was sub-section of satirical poetry called Subversive Poetry. Subversive poetry was a way to mock traditional values of society. This can be seen with John Wilmot’s (The Earl of Rochester) The Imperfect Enjoyment (1680) and Jonathon Swift’s poem The Lady’s Dressing room (1727). Both poems contain neoclassical elements of poetry and tradition from around this period but used satirically, therefore building up the levels of content within both poems. Here, I will investigate the relationship between the form and the content of these two subversive poems and how they can both elevate each of the poem’s stories.

Rochester’s The Imperfect Enjoyment is a transgressive poem about reaching sexual completion prematurely and then blaming this short coming on the poetics voices mistress. However, this attitude does not fuel the entire poem. For the first fifteen lines of the poem, although sexually charged, are not as obscene as the rest of it. Broken by a trochaic syllable ‘I dissolve o’er’ (Line, 15). By finishing on an unstressed syllable, we can see a mirroring technique appear as this can be seen as him ejaculating too soon. We see a shift within the poem after this moment to an aggressive masculine poetic voice. Rochester uses this trochaic syllable to show the start of the narrator’s descent in his hatred for his penis. This is the start of strained relationship between the poems content and its form.

The poem follows the hyper masculine voice delve deeper into his hatred for his penis. The narrator starts lightly describing his equipment as the double entendre ‘all-dissolving thunderbolt’ (Line 10). Although dissolving it is still a power image. We can see here Rochester poking fun at the neoclassical feature of calling to the Greek Gods, more specifically the most powerful one, Zeus. At this point the narrator is still finding power within himself. Then we move on to ‘dead cinder’ (Line 33) where in the Norton Anthology foot notes describe this as ‘partly burned coal that could be reignited and reused several times’ (Norton, P. 589) showing that the voice still believes that they are able to perform probably and then finally debasing themselves to ‘a common fucking post’ (Line 63) where they now believe they will never be able to overcome this. Rochester specialist Reba Wilcoxon states that the ‘power of sexual impulses (...) is affirmed in the dark irony (...) where the phallus becomes an object rather than a person’ (Wilcoxon, p.384). Thus, showing the true hatred for his short comings. Fabricant also agrees with this saying that ‘the body proves wholly incapable of perpetuating the vitality of genuine passion’ (Fabricant, p.341).

The Imperfect Enjoyment is written in iambic pentameter, this meter is commonly used for pondering or thinking aloud, in this instance showing the voices thoughts over their situation, although a very private one. Fabricant discusses that ‘perhaps the most remarkable aspect of these writings is the which intercourse is contemplated, discussed, and aspired rarely executed in fact’ (Fabricant, p.340). Similarly, the regular rhythm this poem possesses can mirror the act of having sex, with a repetitive in and out rhythm is present throughout. This can be the form of the poem mocking the content, as the rhythm can continue strongly but alas the speaker cannot. Having a strained relationship between the form and content here adds another level of discomfort to this already uncomfortable poem. The strained relationship between the content and Rochester’s use of meter can mirror the reader and the narrator. One over analysing his situation and his inabilities and the other functioning perfectly well, mocking the other. It’s almost as if the actual poem itself is mocking the voice by achieving everything the poetic voice is underachieving at.

Rochester’s use of heroic couplets satirises the form of established, high brow poetry. This device was used heavily during the period in which Rochester wrote, however, it was normally used to contemplate nature. By having this classical element in his writing, especially The Imperfect Enjoyment, pokes fun at the suggestion of high brow poetry. This is particularly pertinent during the line ‘A touch from any part of her hand done’t: / Her hand, her foot, her very look’s a cunt’ (Line, 17- 18). To the average reader it is not something profound enough to be placed within heroic couplets and yet the speaker believes they are. Again, we see this broken relationship between the content of the lines and the form, almost being used incorrectly. Wilcoxon touches on this ‘mock-heroic’ (Wilcoxon, p.380) element stating that ‘the weight of mockery is not being thrown at sex itself’ (Wilcoxon, p.380) but rather the speaker and how they choose to present their escapades. This would’ve made sense at the time as Karen Harvey, an English historian, says that ‘men’s honour accrued from both their own and their women’s behaviour’ (Harvey, p.298). So surely it would only make sense that the voice places these lines in heroic couplets because as the poem continues, he begins to blame not only their self but their lover as well for their incompetence, as it is hurting his honour.

Within the same time period we see another subversive poem appear. Jonathon Swifts, A Lady’s Dressing Room, is a poem commenting on the neoclassical motif of a lady’s dressing room. Harry Solomon, an English professor, states that ‘the visit to the lady’s dressing room was a standard scene in Restoration comedy as well as an inspiration for verse’ (Solomon, p.433). So, already we are starting in a comedic setting. The content of the poem shows us following a man, Stephron, slowly realising that his beloved Celia isn’t as perfect as he may think. As hidden within her dressing room, he discovers her true self. He is terrified about he finds out about his beloved about how her items are ‘with dirt, and sweat, and earwax’ (Line, 46). The repetitive use of ‘and’ shows how constant his traumatic discoveries are to him.

Amanda Vickery, a renowned Professor of Early Modern History talks about how ‘clothes were universal credentials’ (Vickery, p.869) to a lady and that there should’ve been ‘no relaxation of the effort to please through appearance’ (Vickery, p. 870) or else there was a risk of social exile. So, in a case of almost dramatic irony, a woman reader of this time would know and understand everything hidden within a dressing room whereas Swift’s male readers and Stephron would have to discover. If this was the case then Swift has already sets up the comedic ending, the terror of Stephron when he realises his perfect lover is a ‘pocky queen’ (Line, 134). It’s also reviewing superficial consumerism of the time, every item Celia owns is not only for her own vanity but for the male gaze, she’s living up to the patriarchal standards while getting blamed for them, so is she technically performing her femininity? The poem shows the opposite side of the practice of placing women on a societal stepping stool by showing regular human conditions, for example, sweating, getting dirty, wearing makeup and urinating. For example, when he finds ‘greasy coifs’ (Line, 53) or ‘petticoats in in frowzy heaps’ (Line, 48). All basic human needs that would’ve had to be hid to meet societal standards for women.

Swifts’ poem is written in a constant iambic tetrameter which ironically can mirror a heartbeat as the stress lies on the second syllable. Having a heartbeat rhythm throughout the poem can back the content about a man and his love for his ‘goddess’ (Line 3). Furthermore, Swift uses masculine endings for almost all the endings of each line, this would sense after all it is written in the third person perspective of a man, the form is mirroring the content’s voice gender. There are only a handful of times within the poem where the lines finish feminine and that is where Celia is present.

She changes the whole form of the poem but only briefly, by finishing the line on an unstressed syllable shows how weak a woman’s voice would be in society back then, its easily dismissed, this is seen in where ‘which Celia slept at least a week in’ (Line 54) and ‘In calling Celia so sweet and cleanly’ (Line, 18). The form here mirrors the content of the poem, allowing Celia to be present even though she is in the coveted ‘dressing room’. She is the subject of the poem and present in the comedic setting and yet still doesn’t deserve stronger endings. However, whenever Celia is mentioned within the poem her name will always fall on the stressed syllable of that line. We see this straight away within the second line when Celia is first introduced with ‘By haughty Celia’ (Line, 2). Straight away we know that Celia is the true subject of this poem. This can be taken quite literally as it is a stressful situation for Stephron to be in however when read aloud the stressed syllable of ‘Celia’ can almost be heard in a frustrated manner as if Stephron is talking directly to her. By hearing Stephron frustration we can see the content of the poem pushing once more and how much this is affecting him.

We’re almost having our judgement clouded by the third person speaker, these things are completely normal for a renaissance lady and yet us, the readers, are almost finding them as repulsive as Stephron. Additionally, the use of the third person narrator can create distance between the reader and the poems content, it can show that reader does not want to get too close to the truth which would be the case as a lot of Swift’s readers at the time would’ve been male, with the same opinions as Stephron.

Secondly, the continuous rhyming couplets throughout the poem presents how constant this is within Celia’s life. In this poem we know that Celia represents most women so we’re seeing the constant entrapment of the patriarchal standards for that time. Much like Rochester, Swift also uses the heroic couplets satirically by using them to expose things not as profound for example ‘Some with pomatum, paints and slops,/ and ointments good for scabby chops’ (Line, 35 – 36). We also see Stephron use the couplets to talk about ‘the rouge, displayed it wide,/ and turned it round on every side’ (Line, 13 – 14) Stephron using couplets shows that he believes what he is discovering is worth enough to be placed in them, this can link to the comedic content of the poem as it follows Stephon’s journey exposing his lover, it shows how horrified he truly is about. Especially as social norms had decreed that ‘if you had to paint on your blushes with rouge then your beauty had already fled’ (Vickery, p. 861). Of course, Stephron would use the heroic couplets as he’s finally realising that his love is past the beauty mark.

Like all subversive poetry this poem contains a level of satire, the only time we see quotation marks being used is when Swift gives satirical credit to Milton. Within the footnotes of the Norton Anthology, we see Swift directly quoting the epic Paradise Lost however purposely used in the wrong way. ‘Secrets of the hoary deep’ (Line, 98) originally meant ‘ancient but may also mean corrupt’ (Norton, p.613) however Swift switch that add a more sexual connotation, linking to ‘whore and on the homonym, hoary, which means filthy’ (Norton, p.613). The opposing religious context and the sexual connotation shows how Swift wishes to play with the patriarchal standard within the society he lives.

Furthermore, when Stephron finds Celia’s ‘greasy coifs and pinners’ (Line, 53) and stockings 'stained with the marks of stinking toes’ (Line, 52) he assumes that she’s been wearing the same clothes over and over again, ironically, he questions ‘why should I expose’ (Line, 51). Directly questioning the poems content is almost breaking a metaphorical fourth wall as all the poems focus is Stephron exposing the true Celia and the societal pedestal she is placed on. Are we finally seeing those close walls breaking down? The lack of a question mark means we can quickly skim over it, something that is often missed. Hilariously we see another layer of exposure happen as after all we’re seeing Swift ‘expose Stephron preconceptions about women to the light of reality’ (Solomon, p.440).

In conclusion, there is always a strong link between a subversive poem form and the content of it. This satirical genre of poetry will always poke fun at the high brow poetry. We see this when Rochester writes about the obscenities in ‘The Imperfect Enjoyment’ or when Swift exposes the horrors of Celia’s dressing room. Although both poems contain very different story lines, one discussing a person’s short comings during a sexual experience, the other about a man exposing his ‘goddess’ (line, 3) for show she truly is, they both use similar forms to mock the traditional standards of poetry but use the content to shock the readers of their time. I believe Wilcoxon put it perfectly when she stated, ‘all pornography is obscene, but not all obscenity is pornographic’ (Wilcoxon, p.376). Overall, the content and form of a poem and how they relate to each other is needed within subversive poetry as it can add more layers of satire.

Works Cited: 

Mutton Dressed as Lamb? Fashioning Age in Georgian England Author: Amanda Vickery Source: Journal of British Studies, OCTOBER 2013, Vol. 52, No. 4 (OCTOBER 2013), pp. 858-886 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of The North American Conference on British Studies DISCIPLINING ON THE SLY: SWIFT'S 

"THE LADY'S DRESSING ROOM" Authors: Hermann J. Real and Heinz J. Vienken Source: Arbeiten aus Anglistik und Amerikanistik, 1988, Vol. 13, No. 1 1988), pp. 39-50 Published by: Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH Co. KG

"Difficult Beauty": Tom D'Urfey and the Context of Swift's "The Lady's Dressing Room" Author: Harry M. Solomon Source: Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, Summer, 1979, Vol. 19, No. 3, Restoration and Eighteenth Century (Summer, 1979), pp. 431-444 Published by: Rice University

Rochester's World of Imperfect Enjoyment Author: Carole Fabricant Source: The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, Jul. 1974, Vol. 73, No. 3 (Jul. 1974), pp. 338-350 Published by: University of Illinois Press

Pornography, Obscenity, and Rochester's "The Imperfect Enjoyment" Author: Reba Wilcoxon Source: Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, Summer, 1975, Vol. 15, No. 3, Restoration and Eighteenth Century (Summer, 1975), pp. 375-390 Published by: Rice University

The History of Masculinity, circa 1650–1800 Author: Karen Harvey Source: Journal of British Studies, Vol. 44, No. 2 (April 2005), pp. 296-311 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of The North American Conference on British Studies